Alfredo e Angelo Castiglioni - Pharaonic inscriptions along the eastern desert routes to Sudan

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The boundary stele that the Thutmoses have left at Hagr el Merwa, on a quartz rock near the Nile a little to the north of the 19th parallel, is the sign of the most southerly Egyptian advance so far found in Africa. Some of the inscriptions have resisted the millenia: the figure of Amun-Ra with the ram's head; the bull, that identifies the god Amun-Ra-Kamutef and the lion, symbol of the pharaoh.
With the consolidation of the new border, commercial traffic followed two routes:
along the river and the by shorter route across the desert.
From this schematic map one can note how the river route from Korosko to Kurgus is the longer: circa 1200 kilometres, while the overland route is only of some 500 kilometres (Plate 1).
Furthermore, the Nile along the great Dongola Reach, is not easily navigable: three cataracts, the second, the third and the fourth, make navigation difficult. The second cataract included a stretch of the Nile some 70 km in length; the Egyptian sailors were forced to unload their merchandise, transport it overland and reload it after having bypassed the cataract.
Even the trade winds that from November to March blow from south-west, make the navigation of the long stretch between the two modern cities of Abu Hamed and Debba extremely difficult.
These difficulties could be avoided by crossing the desert.

The Ce.R.D.O. expedition of 2001-2002 had the aim of following the ancient caravan route that from Kurgus on the Nile, after having crossed the desert of Atmur, arrived once more on the Nile at the point of Korosko, and to find traces of the Egyptian military penetration and of the subsequent commercial traffic (Plate 2).

In the course of this mission, we revisit several gold mine, found during the Ce.R.D.O season 1989/1990/1991; among these, the gold mine of Omar Khabash (C50 on the satellite photo – Plate 31) and the mine of Umm Fit Fit (C2 - Plate 4 ). Pottery sherds collected during the 1990/1991 season, were dated to the pharaonic period.
The mining settlement of Umm Fit Fit is located on the southern side of a small amphitheatre of low hills. Among the dry stone constructions, of round or rectangular plan, we found numerous anvils for the first crushing of the quartz, and grinding querns for the pulverisation of the mineral, obtained from a granite quarry, opened on the side of a nearby hill.

The large area of Umm Nabari is a collection of intrusive granitic rocks, composed by surface seams of pegmatites, eruptive rocks that are frequently rich in rare minerals and precious stones, such as topaz and beryl. But is principally the gold bearing quartz that is the wealth of the area.
We reach the western end of the massif, and the vast area of mineral exploration, with hills of worked quartz that prove the long period of use of the site (A1 – 1989 season - the left yellow square on the satellite photos – Plate 31).

The route that heads for Korosko, passes through a valley, marked by arrows on the satellite photo (Plate 5 ), that divides the principal massif of Umm Nabari from a low semicircular plateau (Jebel Abu Merekh). We follow the wadi Tonaidba, going along the west side of the Jebel Nabari (Plate 6).
At about 10 kilometres to the north-west of A1, we find a cave in a low hill (first orange square on the left of the satellite photo – Plate 26).
It has two apertures, and has probably been formed by water in antiquity (plate 7).
It was the ideal area for caravans to rest: the two apertures are located at opposite ends, creating a pleasant breeze, making the shelter cool.
The cave is some 100 metres in length and 10 metres high, with a slight slope, and the bottom is filled with stone debris.
Having entered the southern end of the cave, we notice an inscription on the wall to the right, deeply incised on the rock, by means of a pick (Plate 8).
The patina is slightly lighter than the surrounding rock face. The hieroglyphs are clear; only two, along a vein dark with salts, have been eroded.
Translation: 'THE PRINCE OF TEH-KHET (Debeira), RWIA"
The inscription is located at some 50-60 cm from the floor of the cave: the difficulty of executing the graffito at this height makes one suppose that the floor of the cave was at a lower level in the Egyptian period.
It would be necessary to remove the detritus collected at the foot of the wall: other inscriptions could be hidden further down.
With a special resin we make a copy of the inscription.
Opposite this inscription we copy another graffito, less clear than the former, at some two and a half metres height from the floor of the cave (Plate 9).
Carried out by superficial pecking, it is almost invisible when the light conditions are not right. The patina is a little lighter than that of the previous inscription. The signs are fairly clear, except for the last one to the right, which is difficult to identify.
Translation: "THE SCRIBE MERI… OF TEH-KHET"

The right hand wall, before the southern entrance to the cave, was once covered with hieroglyphs; wind erosion has obliterated them: there remain only some few signs to testify to the long occupation of the site.
We explore the region and at 5 kilometres to the east of the cave, we find a large circle of stones of over 10 metres in diameter (the left blue square on the satellite photo – Plate 26). It encloses the openings of some wells filled with sand and a probable burial area, marked by remains of bones on the surface (Plate 10).
We continue northwards and run along the narrow valley that separates Jebel Nabari from a small mountainous formation to the west.
The valley, some 6 kilometres wide at its mouth, narrows to a width of 2 km, and then again opens out into a valley about 5 km wide. The area is dotted with hills of Nubian sandstone, eroded by the wind into pinnacles.
The eastern end of the valley is filled with sand dunes blown by the wind up against the western side of the Jebel Nabari (Plate 11). We carry out a reconnaissance, but it seems impossible for a caravan to cross this area of soft sand. The only transitable corridor is the western side of the valley that is next to the small plateau.
Our research therefore continues along this side.
Proceeding in this direction (western side of wadi Tonaidba), at about 17 kilometres north-west of the wells, we find another inscription on a sandstone wall (second orange square on the left of satellite photo – Plate 26).
The position of the rock, faintly angled in respect to the valley, is partially protected by the winds: this fact has surely contributed to the good state of preservation of the graffito (Plate 12). The pecking is shallow and the inscription has a patina very much lighter than that of the surrounding rock; this makes it easily visible even at a distance of several metres. The hieroglyphs stand out clearly and only the central ones are difficult to interpret.
Translation: THE PRINCE HARNAKHT SON OF PENNIUT, THE COMMANDER OF THE TROUPS OF MIAM (Anniba), HIS FATHER...".
Some cattle are incised below the hieroglyphs: their patina is a little darker. Fragments of pottery, collected at the base of the wall, would suggest a prehistoric date for the cattle drawings.
A dozen of meters to the north, a small cavity created by wind erosion protects other representations of cattle. The central figure is well executed: it has long thin horns, a dappled coat and large teats swollen with milk (Plate 13).
In the vicinity, other representations of cattle are of a coarser design. The technique, shallow pecking, is similar to that of the hieroglyphs, while the patina us slightly darker than that of the inscriptions.
At a distance of a few meters is another hieroglyph (Plate 14). It is positioned above the representation of a herd of cattle, half erased by erosion.
Translation: THE GENERAL, COMMANDER OF THE TROOPS

Proceeding towards the north, we copy, at a short distance one from the other, further inscriptions.
One inscription, even if it is executed with shallow pecking and therefore not easy to read, is incised on a wall protected from the winds, and is therefore preserved
(Plate 15).
All around are enigmatic inscriptions with a slightly darker patina than that of the hieroglyph.
Translation: THE CHIEF OF THE NUBIANS, ITY (Valloggia)

Another incription is on two lines (Plate 16). The second line is visible when the light is at an angle; the first line, instead, can be seen only when the wall is completely in shadow.
This incision is an example of the difficulty of producing a reliable photographic documentation of the inscriptions.
Translation: THE GENERAL SUBSTITUTE OF THE TROOPS THE PRINCE HARNAKHT

Proceeding to the north the valley opens up and its walls become more exposed to the winds.
The inscriptions are almost completely erased by the aeolian erosion (Plate 17).
Next to the inscriptions are some enigmatic graffiti and numerous representations of cattle.

Continuing to the north, we note another beautiful representation of a heard of
cattle (Plate 18). It's incised at about 10 meters from the base of the wadi, on a wall of sandstone half submerged in very fine red wind blown sand. Probably other pictures are hidden under the sand.
Numerous sherds of prehistoric pottery are scattered around the base of the hill.

Before the valley opens out towards the plain, we discover a cave (Plate 20), that rises 5 metres from the base of the wadi (third orange square on the left of the satellite photo – Plate 26).
In front of the entrance, we note an inscription deeply incised in the sandstone
(Plate 21).
The hieroglyphs by the entrance are clear, while those in the interior are almost completely erased (Plate 23); an erosion probably caused by the wind blown sand that accumulates on the floor of the cave, wearing the internal walls smooth.
The cave (Plate 24) could be a small rock temple dedicated to the goddess Hathor: the hieroglyphs are contained within the outline of the representation of a bovine and one can read the name of
PRIEST OF FIRST RANK, NEBNETERU, TRUE OF VOICE
We copy the inscription on acetate.

Outside the cave, on the north wall, an inscription (Plate 25), incised in the sandstone is located above a group of cattle whose bodies have been coarsely smoothed.
Translation: THE PRINCE MESU
Immediately afterwards tehe valley opens out towards a vast sandy plain.

The inscriptions presented above are unpublished, but have been studied by Prof. Michel Valloggia of the University of Geneva, by Prof. Alessandro Roccati of the University La Sapienza of Rome and Prof. Vivian Davies of The British Museum.
There are two place names of interest that mention the site of Tehkhet (the modern day region of Serra-Debeira, towards Faras) and the country of Miam (region of Aniba-Qasr Ibrim)
The inscriptions date to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.
Eight inscriptions mention titles and personal names of people who have participated in expeditions in this desert region: scribes, priests, commanders of regiments, a Nubian chieftain, the prince Harnakht, etc.

During the Ce.R.D.O. season of 1989, we explored the eastern side of Jebel Umm Nabari, and what we found there was in some respects very similar to what has been described above.
We discovered a large circle of stones, with a diameter of circa 10 metres, that enclosed some wells (Plate 27). It was located in a plain, near the southern side of Jebel Dayob (blue square on the right – Plate 26 on the satellite map).

At a dozen kilometres to the south west, we discovered some representations of Horus (Plates 28 and 29), next to the name of a prophet (orange square on the right – Plate 26 on the satellite map).
These representations seemed to be associated with a cult area, as also seems to have been the case in the Hathor cave discovered during the most recent Ce.R.D.O. season. All around are numerous representations of cattle, with long thin horns, similar in the their execution to those found during the last season (Plate 30).

We may therefore hypothesize two different caravan routes that, leaving from Kurgus, headed in one case towards the western side of Jebel Umm Nabari, in the other towards the eastern side of the same mountain range.
Both caravan routes went near areas rich in gold bearing quartz (Plate 31) :
the western caravan route reached the gold mines: C5 (Abu Siha), C4 (Rod el Ushal), C3 (one small mine between C4 and C1), C1, C2 (Umm Fit Fit) and A1 (Umm Nabari).
The eastern caravan route passed the mines C50 (Omar Khabash, were pot sherds of Egyptian date were found), C6 (Nab el Husan), B5 (Nabi) and B4 (Mosei).
The mines B5 and B4 were visited during the Ce.R.D.O season of 1990.
The western and eastern sides of Jebel Umm Nabari are connected by wadi Murrat.
At about half way along it, wadi Murrat is flanked by a defensive complex that has the same name as the wadi, located in a position that permitted it to control the passing caravans (Plate 32).
It is difficult to determine the date of the fort; only excavation would help establish the period of its use, that in any case seems fairly recent.

The eastern and western tracks of Jebel Umm Nabari met again at the northern end of the Jebel (Plate 33 – on the satellite photo).
The area is marked by low sandstone hills eroded by wind action.
After about 70 km. of rolling 'hamada' one reaches the pass of Khashm el Bab (Plate 34 on the satellite photo).
There are three passes in the area: that of Khashm el Bab is the most direct, along the Kurgus-Korosko caravan route.
It rises only 60 meters from the level of the plain and is flanked by Nubian sandstone, excavated by the wind.
Working with Giancarlo Negro during the 1990 Ce.R.D.O. season, we found numerous inscriptions in an isolated shelter located to the east of the pass, a resting place of easy access to the caravans (Plate 35).
These inscriptions were presented at the Nubian Conference at Gosen in 1992 (Plate 36).
The pass of Khashm el Bab intersected the track (map 37) that connected Buhen with Berenike Panchrysos (Plate 38).
This was a long caravan route, dotted with inscriptions, discovered during the previous seasons: the name of Heqanefer (Plate 39), found in a shelter (Plate 40);
the inscription of Bir Umm Gat (Plate 41), studied by Alessandro Roccati; and a small inscription found in wadi Nasari (Plate 42), at about 20 km from Berenike (Plate 38).

Our exploration ends 10 km to the north of this pass, on the 22nd parallel that marks the modern border between Sudan and Egypt. Approximately eighty kilometres separate us from Korosko, today buried under the waters of Lake Nasser.

We hope that the good relations that are being established between the two countries will allow us to continue our research along this important, ancient caravan route that after leaving the Nile crossed the desert and then rejoined the Nile after approximately 500 km.